The current mega-trend in the biological sciences is the human genome project, and commercial exploitation of the data. However, there is an exceptional limitation to the use and implementation of this information as the data is not specific at the level of the individual. Incredibly the data is from only a few individuals, hardly representative of the variation present in human populations, rendering the data useful in general applications only. The staggering complexity of the human genome makes application on an individual basis impractical. To sequence completely one human nuclear genome the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Institute of Health have invested 2.5 billion dollars since 1988 (http://www.ornl.gov/hgmis/project/budget.html).
Mitochondrial Genome
The mitochondrial genome is a compact yet critical sequence of nucleic acid. The mitochondrial genome codes for enzyme subunits necessary for cellular respiration. Mitochondrial DNA, or “mtDNA”, is a minuscule genome of nucleic acid at 16,569 base pairs (bp) Anderson et al., 1981; Andrews et al., 1999) in contrast to the immense nuclear genome of 3.3 billion bp. Its genetic complement is astronomically smaller than that of its nuclear cell mate (0.0005%). However, individual cells carry anywhere from 103 to 104 mitochondria depending on specific cellular function (Singh and Modica-Napolitano 2002). Communication or chemical signaling, routinely occur between the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes (Sherratt et al., 1997). Moreover, specific nuclear components are responsible for maintenance and integrity of mitochondrial sequence (Croteau et al., 1999). When these nuclear areas are rendered non-functional by nuclear rearrangements indicative of potential disease, then mutations begin to appear in mtDNA sequences. In addition, specific mitochondria may be identified for intracellular destruction bp deletions prompted by somatic mutations in the mitochondrial genome. This theoretical mechanism may serve as an indication of impending disease as well. About 3,000 genes are required to make a mitochondrion, with only thirty-seven of these coded by the mitochondrial genome, indicating heavy mitochondrial dependence on nuclear loci (Naviaux, 1997).
All mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) genomes in a given individual are identical given the clonal expansion of mitochondria within the ovum, once fertilization has occurred. The essential role of mtDNA is the generation of the cellular fuel, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which fires cellular metabolism. Significantly, the mitochondrial genome is dependent on seventy nuclear encoded proteins to accomplish the oxidation and reduction reactions necessary to this vital function, in addition to the thirteen polypeptides supplied by the mitochondrial genome (Leonard and Shapira, 1997). Different tissues and organs depend on oxidative phosphorylation to a varied extent. Diseases related to defective oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) appear to be closely linked to mtDNA mutations (Byrne, 1992). Consequently as OXPHOS diminishes due to increased severity of mtDNA mutations, organ specific energetic thresholds are exceeded which give rise to a variety of clinical phenotypes. Moreover, mutations in the mitochondrial genome are associated with a variety of chronic, degenerative diseases (Gattermann et al. 1995). It is well known that aging and specific types of pathology can alter, or mutate mtDNA compromising the energy production capacity of the cell. This often results in over-expression of defective mitochondria, and/or the cell supplementing the lack of ATP by becoming more glycolytic (Carew and Huang, 2002); therefore, changes or mutations, in the mitochondrial genome can be used as markers for disease genesis and/or disease progression, when monitored at successive intervals.
Recently, Fliss et al. (2000) found, in primary tumors from lung and bladder cancer, a high frequency of mtDNA mutations which were predominantly homoplasmic in nature, indicating that the mutant mtDNA was dominant in the malignant cells. Point mutations and deletions would appear to be the non-programmed but unavoidable side effect of oxygen free radical damage to the membrane and genome of mitochondria (Miguel et al. 1992). This theory is plausible because not only is the mitochondrial genome lacking protective histones, but also is vulnerable to oxidative damage being found near the oxygen generating inner mitochondrial membrane. Moreover, as mtDNA has a compact genome and lacks introns, deleterious events are thus likely to affect a coding sequence resulting in a biochemical dysfunction. This dysfunction will further increase cellular oxidative stress which will lead to nuclear as well as mtDNA damage, thereby increasing the potential for a cell to enter into the cancer process (Penta et al., 2001). In this respect, research indicates that with increasing age there is an increase in mtDNA damage (Cortopassi & Wang 1995) and a subsequent decline in respiratory function (Miguel et al. 1992) leading to eventual cell death.
mtDNA as a Diagnostic Tool
mtDNA sequence dynamics are important diagnostic tools. Mutations in mtDNA are often preliminary indicators of developing disease, often associated with nuclear mutations, and act as biomarkers specifically related to disease, such as but not limited to: tissue damage and cancer from smoking and exposure to second hand tobacco smoke (Lee et al., 1998; Wei, 1998); longevity, based on accumulation of mitochondrial genome mutations beginning around 20 years of age and increasing thereafter (von Wurmb, 1998); metastatic disease caused by mutation or exposure to carcinogens, mutagens, ultraviolet radiation (Birch-Machin, 2000); osteoarthritis; cardiovascular, Alzheimer, Parkinson disease (Shoffner et al., 1993; Sherratt et al., 1997; Zhang et al, 1998); age associated hearing loss (Seidman et al., 1997); optic nerve degeneration and cardiac dysrhythmia (Brown et al., 1997; Wallace et al., 1988); chronic progressive external exophthalmoplegia (Taniike et al., 1992); atherosclerosis (Bogliolo et al., 1999); papillary thyroid carcinomas and thyroid tumours (Yeh et al., 2000); as well as others (e.g. Naviaux, 1997; Chinnery and Turnbull, 1999).
Mutations at specific sites of the mitochondrial genome can be associated with certain diseases. For example, mutations at 4216, 4217 and 4917 are associated with Leber's Hereditary Optic Neuropathy (LHON) (Mitochondrial Research Society; Huoponen (2001); MitoMap). A mutation at 15452 was found in 5/5 patients to be associated with ubiquinol cytochrome c reductase (complex III) deficiency (Valnot et al. 1999). However, mutations at these sites were not found to be associated with prostate cancer.
Specifically, these alterations include point mutations (transitions, transversions), deletions (one base to thousands of bases), inversions, duplications, (one base to thousands of bases), recombinations and insertions (one base to thousands of bases). In addition, specific base pair alterations, deletions, or combinations of are associated with early onset of prostate, skin, and lung cancer, as well as aging (e.g. Polyak et al., 1998), premature aging, exposure to carcinogens (Lee et al., 1998), etc.
Since mtDNA is passed to offspring exclusively through the ovum, it is imperative to understand mitochondrial sequences through this means of inheritance. The sequence of mtDNA varies widely between maternal lineages (Ward et al., 1991), hence mutations associated with disease must be clearly understood in comparison to this variation. For example, a specific T to C transition noted in the sequence of several individuals, associated with a specific cancer, could in reality be natural variation in a maternal lineage widespread in a given particular geographical area or associated with ethnicity. For example, Native North Americans express an unusually high frequency of adult onset diabetes. In addition, all North American Natives are genetically characterized by five basic maternal lineages designated A, B, C, D, and X (Schurr et al., 1990; Stone and Stoneking, 1993; Smith et al., 1999). Lineage A is distinguished by a simple point mutation resulting in a Hae III site at bp 663 in the mitochondrial genome, yet there is no causative relationship between this mutation and the adult onset of diabetes. In addition, even within lineage clusters there is sequence variation.
Outside of the specific markers associated with a particular lineage there is more intrapopulation variation than interpopulation sequence variation (Easton et al., 1996; Ward et al., 1991, 1993) This divergence must be understood for optimal identification of disease associated mutations, hence a maternal line study approach (Parsons et al., 1997), mimicking the strengths of a longitudinal design (i.e. subject tracking over a substantial period of time), must be used to identify mutations directly associated with disease, as opposed to mutations without disease association. Moreover, particular substances, such as second hand tobacco smoke, low levels of asbestos, lead, all known mutagens and at low levels in many environments, may be the cause of specific point mutations, but not necessarily a disease specific marker. Hence, a substantial mtDNA sequence database is a clear prerequisite to accurate forecasting of potential disease as a natural process, or through exposure to causative agents. Furthermore, the entire molecule must be sequenced for its full information content. The entire suite of point mutations (transitions, transversions), deletions (one base to thousands of bases), inversions, duplications, (one base to thousands of bases), recombinations and insertions (one base to thousands of bases) must be characterized as a whole over the entire mitochondrial genome. This ensures that all possible information available in the mitochondrial genome is captured. Although the genome of cytoplasmic mitochondria (16,569 bp) has been sequenced at an individual level, like its nuclear counterpart, the mitochondrial genome has not been sequenced at a population level for use as a diagnostic tool.
Recently mitochondria have been implicated in the carcinogenic process because of their role in apoptosis and other aspects of tumour biology (Green & Reed, 1998, Penta et al., 2001), in particular somatic mutations of mtDNA (mtDNA) have been observed in a number of human tumours (Habano et al. 1998; Polyak et al. 1998; Tamura et al. 1999; Fliss, et al. 2000). These latter findings were made more interesting by the claims that the particular mtDNA mutations appeared to be homoplasmic (Habano et al. 1998; Polyak et al. 1998; Fliss, et al. 2000). Additionally researchers have found that ultraviolet radiation (UV) is important in the development and pathogenesis of non-melanoma skin cancer (NMSC) (Weinstock 1998; Rees, 1998) and UV induces mtDNA damage in human skin (Birch-Machin, 2000a).
Moreover, through time, mitochondrial sequence loses integrity. For example, the 4977 bp deletion increases in frequency with age (Fahn et al., 1996). Beginning at age 20, this deletion begins to occur in small numbers of mitochondria. By age 80, a substantial number of molecules have been deleted. This deletion characterizes the normal aging process, and as such serves as a biomarker for this process. Quantification of this aging process may allow medical or other interventions to slow the process.
This application of mitochondrial genomics to medicine has been overlooked because mtDNA has been used primarily as a tool in population genetics and more recently in forensics; however, it is becoming increasingly evident that the information content of mtDNA has substantial application in the field of medical diagnostics. Moreover, sequencing the entire complement of mtDNA was a laborious task before the recent advent of high capacity, high-throughput robotic DNA sequencing systems. In addition, population geneticists were able to gather significant data from two highly variable areas in the control region; however, these small regions represent a small portion of the overall genome, less than 10%, meaning that 90% of the discriminating power of the data is left unused. Significantly, many disease associated alterations are outside of the control region. The character of the entire genome should be considered to include all sequence information for accurate and highly discriminating diagnostics.
Non-Melanoma Skin Cancer
Human non-melanoma skin cancer (NMSC) is the commonest cancer in many Caucasian populations (Weinstock, 1998; Rees, 1998). The majority of these tumours are basal cell carcinoma (BCC) and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). BCCs are locally invasive and can cause significant morbidity but rarely metastasis. SCCs show significant metastatic potential and the occurrence of multiple NMSCs in patients with immunosuppression causes significant management problems (Rees, 1998). While there are no clinically identified pre-malignant lesions for BCC, some SCCs are thought to arise from precursor lesions, namely actinic keratoses (AKs) or areas of Bowen's disease (in situ carcinoma)(Rees, 1998).
SCCs show loss of heterozygosity affecting several chromosomes which suggests the involvement of several tumour suppressor genes in their development. Interestingly, in AKs, an equal or greater degree of genetic loss is observed in these precursor lesions compared to SCCs (Rehman et al. 1994; Rehman et al. 1996). This is important for the proposed invention because it suggests that other mechanisms, in addition to inactivation of tumour suppressor genes, are likely to be involved in the development of SCCs.
A role for mitochondria in tumourigenesis was originally hypothesised when tumour cells were found to have an impaired respiratory system and high glycolytic activity (Shay & Werbin, 1987). Recent findings elucidating the role of mitochondria in apoptosis (Green & Reed, 1998) together with the high incidence of homoplasmic mtDNA mutations in colon cancer (Habano et al. 1998; Polyak et al. 1998, reviewed in Penta et al., 2001), primary tumours of the bladder, neck and lung (Fliss et al. 2000), and gastric tumours (Tamura et al. 1999), further support this hypothesis. Furthermore, it has been proposed that these mitochondrial mutations may affect the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which have been shown to be highly mitogenic (Polyak et al. 1998; Li et al. 1997).
Previous studies by the inventors and others have shown that mutations in mtDNA and the associated mitochondrial dysfunction is an important contributor to human degenerative diseases (Birch-Machin et al. 1993; Chinnery et al. 1999; Birch-Machin et al. 2000b). This is because the mitochondrial genome is particularly susceptible to mutations due to the high amounts of ROS produced in this organelle coupled with the lack of protective histones and a low rate of mtDNA repair (Pascucci et al. 1997; Sawyer & van Houten; LeDoux et al. 1999) compared to the nucleus. Indeed, the mutation rate for mtDNA is around ten times higher than that of nuclear DNA (Wallace, 1994). Most of the mtDNA mutations identified in the recent human tumour studies have indicated possible exposure to ROS derived mutagens. This is important for the investigation of mtDNA mutations in NMSC because there is recent evidence for the direct involvement of UV induced ROS in the generation of mtDNA deletions in human skin cells (Berneburg et al. 1999, Lowes et al., 2002). In addition, the major determinant of NMSC in individuals without protective pigmentation or genetic predisposition is UV (Weinstock, 1998). The putative precursor lesions of SCCs are also found predominantly on constant sun-exposed sites. This is important because work by the Birch-Machin laboratory has shown distinct differences between the incidence of mitochondrial DNA damage in skin taken from different sun-exposed body sites. The vast majority of the damage is found on constant sun-exposed sites (Krishanan et al., 2002).
One of the inventors was the first to quantitatively show that UV exposure induces mtDNA damage (Birch-Machin et al. 1998). MtDNA as a molecular marker was used to study the relation between chronological aging and photo aging in human skin. A 3-primer quantitative PCR (qPCR) method was used to study the changes in the ratio of the 4977 bp-deleted to wild type mtDNA in relation to sun exposure and chronological age of human skin. There was a significant increase in the incidence of high levels (i.e. >1%) of the 4977 bp-deleted mtDNA in sun-exposed (27%, [27/100]) compared with sun-protected sites (1.1% [1/90]) (Fishers exact test, P<0.0001). Deletions or mutations of mtDNA may therefore be useful as a marker of cumulative ultraviolet radiation exposure
Furthermore, a study using a South-Western Blot approach involving monoclonal antibodies against thymine dimers, provided direct evidence for the presence of UV-induced damage in purified mtDNA (Ray et al. 1998).
Recent work from the inventors' research group has used a long extension PCR (LX-PCR) technique to amplify the entire mitochondrial genome in order to determine the whole deletion spectrum of mtDNA secondary to UV exposure (Ray et al. 2000). Long PCR analysis of 71 split skin samples, where the epidermis is separated from the underlying dermis, was performed in relation to sun exposure. There was a significant increase in the number of deletions with increasing UV exposure in the epidermis (Kruskal-Wallis test, p=0.0015). The findings in the epidermis are not confounded by any age-dependent increases in mtDNA deletions also detected by the long PCR technique. The large spectrum of identified deletions highlights the ubiquitous nature and the high mutational load of mtDNA associated with UV exposure. Compared to the detection of single deletions using competitive PCR, the study shows that long PCR is a sensitive technique and may therefore provide a more comprehensive, although not quantitative, index of overall mtDNA damage in skin. The studies by one of the inventors described above clearly show that mtDNA is a significant target of UV and this together with the role of mitochondrial in skin disease has been recently reviewed (Birch-Machin, 2000).
The pigmentation of human hair and skin which is the major co-variant of UV sensitivity and human skin cancer has been investigated. These investigations have centred on the association of variants of the melanocortin 1-receptor gene and sun-sensitivity of individuals and populations (Smith et al. 1998; Healy et al. 1999; Flanagan et al. 2000; Healy et al. 2000; Harding et al. 2000; Flanagan et al., 2002) relating to skin cancer susceptibility. However, these studies have not addressed population-level variation in mtDNA sequences in association with particular skin types and/or hair colour.
One of the questions which remains largely unanswered by the recent studies of mtDNA mutations in human tumours is the incidence of deletions of the mitochondrial genome in relationship to these tumours. This is an important question to answer because a preliminary study of a single patient in human skin has shown differences in the incidence of the common mtDNA deletion between several tumours (AKs and SCCs) and normal skin (Pang et al. 1994). As well, the inventors' own preliminary data shows an increased number of mtDNA deletions in tumours compared to normal skin. Finally, Birch-Machin and others have shown that the incidence of mtDNA deletions, as well as duplications, increases with increasing UV exposure (Berneburg et al. 1999; Birch-Machin et al. 1998; Ray et al. 1998; Ray et al. 1999; Ray et al. 2000), Lindsey et al., 2001; Birch-Machin et al., 2001; Lowes et al., 2002, Krishnan et al., 2002).
Apart from the questions relating to tumour progression other vital questions remain largely unanswered by the recent studies of mtDNA in human tumours (Habano et al. 1998; Fiiss et al. 2000). Firstly, due to technical limitations, it is not clear whether the mtDNA mutations are truly homoplasmic, as varying levels of heteroplasmy may indicate important disease transitions as well (Habano et al. 1998; Polyak et al. 1998; Fliss, et al. 2000); secondly, apart from one study (Tamura et al. 1999) the incidence of mtDNA deletions and their role as potential biomarkers for NMSC was not investigated. Researchers have looked at the common deletion and ignored the rest of the 100 or so deletions. As well, investigators have been focused on identification of mutations, rather than their quantification. It is important to assess accurately in a quantitative manner the incidence of deletions because of the threshold effect of mtDNA damage on ATP production and consequently cell function. In addition, deletions are difficult to characterize.
Long PCR is typically used which produces a ladder of deletions which then have to be characterized.
Current diagnosis of NMSC is pathological evaluation of excised tissue. Accordingly, there is a need for an early marker of UV-induced DNA damage which predisposes an individual to NMSC. There is also a need for a genetic-based diagnostic tool which allows for early detection and is diagnostically accurate.
Prostate Cancer
Prostate cancer is a frequently diagnosed solid tumour that most likely originates in the prostate epithelium (Huang et al. 1999). In 1997, nearly 10 million American men were screened for prostate specific antigen (PSA), the presence of which suggests prostate cancer (Woodwell, 1999). Indeed, this indicates an even higher number of men screened by an initial digital rectal exam (DRE). In the same year, 31 million men had a DRE (Woodwell, 1999). Moreover, the annual number of newly diagnosed cases of prostate cancer in the United States is estimated at 179,000 (Landis et al., 1999). It is the second most commonly diagnosed cancer and second leading cause of cancer mortality in Canadian men. In 1997 prostate cancer accounted for 19,800 of newly diagnosed cancers in Canadian men (28%) (National Cancer Institute of Canada). It is estimated that 30% to 40% of all men over the age of forty-nine (49) have some cancerous prostate cells, yet only 20% to 25% of these men have a clinically significant form of prostate cancer (SpringNet—CE Connection, internet, www.springnet.com/ce/j803a.htm). Prostate cancer exhibits a wide variety of histological behaviour involving both erogenous and exogenous factors, i.e. socio-economic situations, diet, geography, hormonal imbalance, family history and genetic constitution (Konishi et al. 1997; Hayward et al. 1998).
From a risk standpoint familial and hereditary prostate cancers are not considered synonymous terms. Familial cancers refer to the incidences within a family, but are not inherited. This form accounts for up to 25% of prostate cancers (Walsh & Partin, 1997). Hereditary refers to a subtype of prostate cancer with a Mendelian inheritance of a predisposing gene(s) and accounts for approximately 9% of reported cases. A positive family history of prostate cancer for this disease suggests that these predisposing gene(s) play an important role in prostate cancer development and progression. Recently, susceptibility genes on chromosomes 1 and X have been identified as predisposing men to prostate cancer, providing greater insight into the etiology of hereditary cancer (Berthon et al. 1998; Xu et al. 1998).
Prostate cancer prognosis mainly depends on the tumour stage and grade at diagnosis. Only localized prostate cancer can be cured by radical treatment. Standard detection still relies on digital rectal examination, PSA testing and histopathologic examination of prostatic biopsied tissues. Biopsy of a mass is used to confirm malignancy, it is not an early detection technique. Unfortunately, some early tumours are impossible to identify during rectal exams. PSA tests have a specificity of 60 to 70% and a sensitivity of 70 to 80% (personal communication, Dr. Sunil Gulavita, Northwestern Ontario Cancer Centre). A newer technique which refines diagnosis for tumours of common histologic grade is ploidy-DNA analysis employing flow cytometry (Shankey et al. 1995); however, this technique measures chromosomal changes that are only apparent in later stages of cancer development and is not sufficiently sensitive for the detection of minor alterations in DNA structure or chromosomal inversions, or reciprocal trans-locations in early cancers. The invention focuses on early detection since prognosis is heavily dependent on the stage of disease at diagnosis.
Our understanding of genetic abnormalities in prostate cancers is scanty. Research into prostate cancer has focussed on the development of knowledge in the following areas: 1) proto-oncogenes (Buttyan et al. 1987); 2) tumour suppressor genes (p53, p73, KAI1 and MMACI/PTEN; Dong et al. 1995; Cairns et al. 1997) and 3) telomere/telomerase activity in metastasis. Up-regulation of telomerase and amplification of telomeric DNA in prostate cells may provide effective markers for diagnosis. Moreover, telomeres may serve as a site for therapy (Ozen et al. 1998). A number of groups have provided evidence for a “prostate cancer gene” in the short arm of chromosome 1 (Berthon et al. 1998). More work is needed to identify the specific locus within this region. It has been suggested that this marker is only one of several possible genes predisposing men to familial prostate cancer. Other studies have shown possible marker loci on the X chromosome (Xu et al. 1998). If some prostate cancers are polygenic, then mtDNA becomes an important diagnostic tool since it may be difficult to identify and understand the interplay between all associated nuclear genes in such cases.
Certainly, a key issue in prostate cancer research is to identify molecular markers that can effectively determine and distinguish tumour progression. Molecular markers may be able to discriminate between those cases of prostate neoplasmy which will proceed rapidly to metastatic disease and those with little chance of resulting in tumour development. Comparison of molecular markers or mutations can determine whether the tumor pathway is latent or aggressive. Up to the present research has focused primarily on the secrets hidden within the nuclear genome; however, the much smaller mtDNA genome seems to act as a barometer for events in the nucleus and as such provides a means for the early detection of human prostate cancer (Zeviani et al. 1990). Importantly, in this respect, mitochondria have been implicated in the carcinogenic process because of their role in apoptosis and other aspects of tumour biology (Green & Reed 1998). In particular, somatic mutations of mtDNA have been observed in a number of human tumours (Polyak et al. 1998, Tamura et al. 1999, Fliss et al. 2000). However, previous studies have been exclusively cross-sectional as they have not considered the clonal nature of mtDNA in maternal lines. These limited cross-sectional studies merely show the mutation at one time point. This may or may not give an accurate link between a mutation and the corresponding disease state. Cross-sectional studies employing a maternal line have the advantage of tracking a mutation in mtDNA over time and thus mimic the strength of a longitudinal design. Mutations which are common population variants, as opposed to mutations associated with disease can both be identified.
Aging
Aging consists of an accumulation of changes with time both at the molecular and cellular levels; however, the specific molecular mechanisms underlying the aging process remain to be elucidated. In an attempt to explain the aging process, mitochondrial genomes in older subjects are compared to the genomes of younger subjects from the same maternal lineage. One deletion associated with aging is known as the common deletion, or 4977-bp deletion. Aging research has been limited to this common deletion and polymorphisms in the control region. For a clear understanding of these mutations, the entire genome must be analyzed. Other deletions are seen in Table 1 adapted from Wei, 1992.
TABLE 1Deletionssize (bp)References4977Cortopassi and Arnheim, 1990;Ikebe et al., 1990; Linnane et al., 1990;Corral-Debrinski et al., 1991; Yen et al., 1991;Torii et al., 1992; Zhang et al., 19927436Corral-Debrinski et al., 1991;Hattori et al., 1991Hsieh and Wei, 19923610Katayama et al., 19916063Hsieh and Wei, 1992Yen et al., 19925827Zhang et al., 19926335Zhang et al., 19927635Zhang et al., 19927737Zhang et al., 19927856Zhang et al., 19928041Zhang et al., 19928044Zhang et al., 19925756Zhang et al., 1992
Oxygen free radicals, a normal by product of ATP production, are a probable cause of this deletion, which increases in frequency with age. Existing literature demonstrates a strong association between mtDNA (mtDNA) mutations, chronological age, and the overall aging process in postmitotic tissues such as muscle and brain; however, comparative maternal line studies are needed to discriminate between aging associated mutational events and those mutations without an aging association.
In recent years a variety of chronic degenerative diseases have been shown to result from mutations in mtDNA (Gatterman et al. 1995). Diseases related to defective OXPHOS appear to be closely linked to mtDNA mutations (Byrne, 1992). Furthermore, it has been shown that these myopathies are often associated with the common deletion of 4977-bp of the mitochondrial genome (Liu et al. 1997). This large deletion has also been found, at heteroplasmic levels, in various tissues of normal aging persons and is consistent with the Mitochondrial Theory of Aging (Harman, 1981). This is manifest through an increase in the deletion frequency (Cortopassi & Wang, 1995) and a subsequent decline in respiratory function (Miguel et al. 1992) resulting in eventual cell death in old age. The early detection of a predisposition to a disease or disorder presents the best opportunity for medical intervention, as early genetic diagnosis may improve the prognosis for a patient.
Previous studies employing a cross-sectional design have established an association or cause and effect relationship between mtDNA mutations, deletions, and/or combinations of such and aging; however, in order to obtain accurate data the age specific deletion and/or mutation rate must be determined concisely. Attributing mutations to the aging process as opposed to a particular disease at the population level is vital. This information is imperative to an understanding of how mtDNA damage accrues over time. Moreover, the consequences of these particular mutations, their frequencies, and associations in the temporal aspects of aging must be known in order to forecast and eventually slow aging at the molecular level. Researchers have not yet determined this rate, which requires evaluation of population data through maternal lines. Accordingly, there is a need for a biomarker which tracks the aging process.
Accordingly, there is a need for a simple, straightforward system of monitoring the mitochondrial genome for mutations which indicate early stage cancer, aging or other human diseases with a DNA component. There is also a need for a simple diagnostic system for sun exposure, non-melanoma skin cancer, prostate cancer, lung cancer and aging linked to defects in the mitochondrial genome. There is a need for a diagnostic system which differentiates between mutations in mtDNA which cause disease, and those which simply represent variation within and between populations.